eukaryotic cell – a type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane- enclosed organelles, present in protists, plants, fungi, and animals; also called a eukaryote
prokaryotic cell – a type of cell lacking membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid partly makes up chromosomes, and is the substance of genes.
genes – a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA
genome – the complete complement of an organism’s genes; an organism’s genetic material
negative feedback – a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in physiological variable that is being monitored triggering a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation
positive feedback – a physiological control mechanism in which a charge in some variable triggers mechanisms that amplify change
Chapter 1, Section 4: - On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection – Charles Darwin o Made “Darwinism” almost interchangeable with the concept of evolution o Had two main points: § “Descent with modification” – contemporary species arose from succession of ancestors · Shows life’s unity and diversity – descending from common ancestors and branching off from common ancestors § Natural selection · Darwin observed that there was individual variation, overproduction, and competition (more population than environment can support à causes competition) o He inferred that there is unequal reproductive success and evolutionary adaptation (population evolves from the survival and reproductive success) · Natural selection – can make families (groups) “split” two or more descendent species o One species – radiate into many species, geographically isolated populations adapt to different sects of environmental factors o Remember – Galapagos finches! – family tree § Share common ancestors – but relate to many different birds · All of life is connected through its long evolutionary history
Chapter 1, Section 6: Themes of Biology
Theme 1: Science as a Process (the nature of science is a process)
Example: Discovery of DNA
Theme 2: Evolution (change through time)
Changes in canine species
Theme 3: Energy Transfer (changing from one form to another)
Eating breakfast à energy used in body
Theme 4: Continuity and Change (all living things have DNA as their genetic makeup/continuity, change/differences in DNA)
DNA
Theme 5: Relationship of Structure to Function (how shape is related to function)
Fish shaped to move through water more easily
Theme 6: Regulation
Body temperature in mammals
Theme 7: Interdependence in Nature
Tissues in organs
Theme 8: Science, Technology, and Society
Chapter 2 – Section 1 and 2
What is the difference between elements and compounds? Element - cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions Compound - made up of two or more elements in a fixed ratio
What 4 elements make up 96% of living matter? Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen (C, H, O, N) Trace elements - elements found in small quantities in living organisms but they are necessary for the organism to function normally (example – Iodine and its function in thyroid)
Definitions – Neutron – neutrally charged subatomic particle Proton – positively charged subatomic particle; both neutrons and protons are found in the atomic nucleus Electron – negatively charged subatomic particle; found surrounding/orbiting the nucleus Atomic number – the number of protons for an element Mass number – the number of protons plus neutrons for an element Atomic mass – the mass of an atom; approximately equal to its mass number
What are isotopes? Isotopes are different forms of the same element that have different number of neutrons. Isotopes give off radioactive particles and others do not.
How are electrons arranged in an atom and how are their positions related to the energy of an atom? Electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different shells called orbitals. These levels possess potential, or stored, energy. The shells closer to the nucleus have less energy than the higher energy shells farther away from the nucleus.
2.4: - Chemical reactions – making and breaking of chemical bonds – leads to change in composition of matter - S arting materials – reactants, ending materials – products o Coefficients – number of molecules involved - Reactions cannot create or destroy matter – only rearrange it - Some chemical reactions go to completion – all reactants converted to products o But most are reversible: products of forward reaction become reactants for reverse reaction - Factor that affects rate of reaction – concentration of reactants o Greater concentration of molecules – more they collide with each other and react to form products o This is the same for the products o At some point same rate – concentrations stop changing § This is called chemical equilibrium – reactions offset each other exactly · Reactions still going on with no net effect on concentrations o Not equal concentrations for reactants and products but that they stabilize each other in a particular ratio
Section 2.3
Chemical Bond – an attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells. Covalent Bond – sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms Molecule -- two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds Single bond -- a pair of shared electrons double bond -- double covalent bond structural formula -- notation which shows both atoms and bonding molecular formula -- notation which indicated how many atoms of different elements make up a molecule valence -- the bonding capacity of an atom electronegativity -- the attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electrons of a covalent bond nonpolar covalent bond -- bond where electrons are shared equally polar covalent bond -- bond where electrons are not shared equally ion -- charged atom or molecule cation -- ion with a positive charge anion -- ion with a negative charge ionic bond -- attraction between anions and cations ionic compounds/salts -- compounds formed by ionic bonds hydrogen bond -- hyrdogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom van der Waals interactions -- "hot spots" of positive and negative charge that enable all atoms and molecules to stick to one another
Chapter 1, Section 1:
Vocabulary
eukaryotic cell – a type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane- enclosed organelles, present in protists, plants, fungi, and animals; also called a eukaryote
prokaryotic cell – a type of cell lacking membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid partly makes up chromosomes, and is the substance of genes.
genes – a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA
genome – the complete complement of an organism’s genes; an organism’s genetic material
negative feedback – a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in physiological variable that is being monitored triggering a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation
positive feedback – a physiological control mechanism in which a charge in some variable triggers mechanisms that amplify change
Chapter 1, Section 4:
- On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection – Charles Darwin
o Made “Darwinism” almost interchangeable with the concept of evolution
o Had two main points:
§ “Descent with modification” – contemporary species arose from succession of ancestors
· Shows life’s unity and diversity – descending from common ancestors and branching off from common ancestors
§ Natural selection
· Darwin observed that there was individual variation, overproduction, and competition (more population than environment can support à causes competition)
o He inferred that there is unequal reproductive success and evolutionary adaptation (population evolves from the survival and reproductive success)
· Natural selection – can make families (groups) “split” two or more descendent species
o One species – radiate into many species, geographically isolated populations adapt to different sects of environmental factors
o Remember – Galapagos finches! – family tree
§ Share common ancestors – but relate to many different birds
· All of life is connected through its long evolutionary history
Chapter 1, Section 6:
Themes of Biology
(the nature of science is a process)
Discovery of DNA
(change through time)
(changing from one form to another)
(all living things have DNA as their genetic makeup/continuity, change/differences in DNA)
(how shape is related to function)
Chapter 2 – Section 1 and 2
What is the difference between elements and compounds?
Element - cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions
Compound - made up of two or more elements in a fixed ratio
What 4 elements make up 96% of living matter?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen (C, H, O, N)
Trace elements - elements found in small quantities in living organisms but they are necessary for the organism to function normally (example – Iodine and its function in thyroid)
Definitions –
Neutron – neutrally charged subatomic particle
Proton – positively charged subatomic particle; both neutrons and protons are found in the atomic nucleus
Electron – negatively charged subatomic particle; found surrounding/orbiting the nucleus
Atomic number – the number of protons for an element
Mass number – the number of protons plus neutrons for an element
Atomic mass – the mass of an atom; approximately equal to its mass number
What are isotopes?
Isotopes are different forms of the same element that have different number of neutrons. Isotopes give off radioactive particles and others do not.
How are electrons arranged in an atom and how are their positions related to the energy of an atom?
Electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different shells called orbitals. These levels possess potential, or stored, energy. The shells closer to the nucleus have less energy than the higher energy shells farther away from the nucleus.
2.4:
- Chemical reactions – making and breaking of chemical bonds – leads to change in composition of matter
- S arting materials – reactants, ending materials – products
o Coefficients – number of molecules involved
- Reactions cannot create or destroy matter – only rearrange it
- Some chemical reactions go to completion – all reactants converted to products
o But most are reversible: products of forward reaction become reactants for reverse reaction
- Factor that affects rate of reaction – concentration of reactants
o Greater concentration of molecules – more they collide with each other and react to form products
o This is the same for the products
o At some point same rate – concentrations stop changing
§ This is called chemical equilibrium – reactions offset each other exactly
· Reactions still going on with no net effect on concentrations
o Not equal concentrations for reactants and products but that they stabilize each other in a particular ratio
Section 2.3
Chemical Bond – an attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells.
Covalent Bond – sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms
Molecule -- two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
Single bond -- a pair of shared electrons
double bond -- double covalent bond
structural formula -- notation which shows both atoms and bonding
molecular formula -- notation which indicated how many atoms of different elements make up a molecule
valence -- the bonding capacity of an atom
electronegativity -- the attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electrons of a covalent bond
nonpolar covalent bond -- bond where electrons are shared equally
polar covalent bond -- bond where electrons are not shared equally
ion -- charged atom or molecule
cation -- ion with a positive charge
anion -- ion with a negative charge
ionic bond -- attraction between anions and cations
ionic compounds/salts -- compounds formed by ionic bonds
hydrogen bond -- hyrdogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom
van der Waals interactions -- "hot spots" of positive and negative charge that enable all atoms and molecules to stick to one another